Mahaparinirvana Sutta, Pali Cannon and the Travelogues

The last journey of the Buddha as mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta is the story of the last two years of the Buddha. The last journey of the Buddha was an important event for the followers of the Buddha as is evident from the travelogues of the monk pilgrims, Fahein and Xuanzang. Both of the pilgrims visited many places associated with this last journey of the Buddha and they told how these important places and events were marked with stupas, chaityas, pillars and viharas. Important events associated with these last two years of the Buddha are also scattered within other various suttas and texts, needing only to be arranged in sequence in order to track his complete movement. Another important needed task is to identify the places associated with the Buddha’s last two years as mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta and other Pali texts.

For analysis, a matrix of places and events mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta and the corresponding reference to events mentioned in Xuanzang’s travelogues has been prepared. The final journey of the Buddha, as mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta, begins at Griddhkuta (vulture's peak) and ends at Kushinara. At the end of the Mahaparinirvana Sutta, the distribution of relics of the Buddha was discussed (table-1).

Table 1 - Events of the last two years of the Buddha (from the Mahaparinirvana Sutta)

Figure 1- Tentative Route of the Buddha (Refer table1)

Buddha made his 44^th Vassa (rainy season retreat, June/July to September) at Sravasti and it is possible that upon reaching Griddhkuta (Vulture's peak) from Sravasti, he started his last journey. We know from the Mahaparinirvana Sutta that the Buddha in Veshak (May) entered into his 80^th year and then he did his 45^th Vassa at Beluva. We also know that the Buddha attained Mahaparinirvana in May, also his 80^th Birthday. So the question is whether the Buddha continued towards Kushinara from Beluva as mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta or if he visited some other places in-between those months (September to May). An important event that took place six months before the Mahaparinirvana of the Buddha is the Parinirvana of Sariputta and Maha Moggallana. And the sequence of the events that followed is tabulated in Table 2.

Table 2 - Events in the last two years of the Buddha (based on Pali sources)

Figure 2- Places visited by Buddha in last 2 Years (from Table 2

 We know from Pali sources that Sariputta took permission from the Buddha before leaving for Nalaka to attain Parinirvana there. We also know from the Cunda Sutta that the Cunda arrived at Sravasti with the relics of Sariputta, and the Buddha went to Rajgriha and then Nalaka to enshrine the relics of Sariputta and Maha Moggallana. The Ukkacela Sutta mentions about the Buddha coming to Ukkacela on his way to Vesali and at a gathering of the monks uttered high praise of the two chief disciples (Sariputta and Maha Moggallana) and spoke of the loss the Order had sustained by their death (S.v.163f). The Sequence of events in addition to the Mahaparinirvana Sutta which happened in the last two years of the Buddha is tabulated in Table-2. 

Table 3- Chart of the Buddha's last two years (Table 1 + Table 2)

 Table 3 is an effort to sequence all of the events mentioned in the Mahaparinirvana Sutta and other incidents that happened in the last two years of the Buddha’s life as mentioned in other Pali sources. Columns 4 and 5 are an estimate of the probable month in which that event is supposed to have happened. We have very little evidence of the exact months of events; the tabulation is more of a conjecture based on what little evidence has been found from the references mentioned in the last column. 

Table 4- Places mentioned by Xuanzang and their identification

                        Figure 3- The complete travel of the Buddha in his last two years based on Table-3

Total distance traveled by the Buddha in his last two years

The evidences suggests that the last journey of the Buddha as mentioned in Mahaparinirvana Sutta (table 1, Fig,1) is not the only journey he took in his last two years. There are many other events mentioned in other Pali sources (table 2, Fig-2) that took place in the Buddha’s last two years, i.e. during his Mahaparinirvana Sutta (journey). If we put all that together we find that the Buddha’s retinue walked over 1650 kilometers in the last two years (Refer table- 5).

1650 kilometers is the GIS distance (i.e., shortest) connecting the major places he visited; the actual distances through trade routes must be much more. Many places like Nalaka, Ukkacela and Kushinara are yet not identified and we have used Xuanzang’s description to put these places on the map for calculation purposes. The actual distance might be anything between 2000 to 2500 kilometers in which the Buddha walked during his last days.

Table 5- Distance between the places visited by The Buddha

                              Reference material used

Jivaka Amravana

There are many stories associated with the birth of Jivaka. According to the Anguttara commentary he was the son of Salavati, a courtesan of Rajagaha with Abhayarajakumara (Son of Raja Bimbisara) but some accounts maintain Jivaka was Ambapali’s son with Raja Bimbisara. As per the Vinaya sources the child was placed in a basket right after birth and thrown on a dust-heap, from where he was rescued by Abhayarajakumara. When questioned by Abhaya, people said "he was alive" (jīvati), and therefore the child was called Jivaka; because he was brought up by the prince, he was called Komārabhacca (child of a Prince). It has been suggested, however, that Komārabhacca meant master of the Kaumarabhrtya science (the treatment of infants); VT.ii.174; in Dvy. (506-18) he is called Kumarabhuta because of his medical profession.

When he grew up, he learnt of his antecedents, and went to Takkasila without Abhaya's knowledge and studied medicine for seven years. When he returned to rajgir, Abhaya established him in his own residence. There he cured Bimbisara of a troublesome fistula and received as reward all the ornaments worn by Bimbisara’s five hundred wives.

DalhaSa, the 12th century commentator of the Susruta Samhita, says that Jivaka's compendium was regarded as one of the authoritative texts on the subject. Another text that quotes Jivaka's formulae is the Navan_taka (meaning 'butter'), a part of the Bower MSS discovered in 1880 from Kuchar in Chinese Turkistan. Based on earlier standard sources, this medical compilation of the 4th century AD, attributes two formulae dealing with children's disease to Jivaka, saying 'Iti hovaca Jivakah, i.e. thus it spoke Jivaka. One formula is: i.e., Bhargi, long pepper, Paha, payasya, together with honey, may be used as linctuses against emeses due to deranged phlegm.

The time has erased all evidences of the first meeting between the Buddha and Jivaka. As Xuanzang describes in his travelogue that Jivaka’s private residence was on the road connecting Griddhkuta and Veluvana.

"North-east from Srigupta’s Fire-pit, and in a bend of mountain wall, was a tope (stupa) at the spot where Jivaka, the great physician, had built a hall for the Buddha. Remains of the walls and of the plants and trees within them still existed. Tathagata often stayed here. Beside the tope the ruins of Jivaka's private residence still survives."

Next Post: Association of Jivaka with the Buddha

Hill North of Griddhkuta

On the north of Griddhkuta hill is another steep hill that majestically displays a brick stupa from the Ashok era. Referring to Xuanzang’s travelogue for confirmation, we find that this stupa is to mark the spot from where the Buddha beheld Magadha Empire and taught law for seven consecutive days while his subjects listened to him spell bound. In his exact words from the travelogue:

“On the top of the northern mountain is a stupa. From this point tathagata beheld the town of Magadha, and for seven days explained law”. (Book IX, page- 155, Records of western countries- S. Beal)


The above mentioned stupa was vandalized a few weeks ago and the urgency to protect the remains of our heritage has taken a center stage once more.

So, with the reference and the location of the hill it would be logical to conclude that the ancient stupa standing on the northern peak indeed is the monument mentioned as the “Inspiration peak” in the Papata Sutta which in Pali means a steep drop-off; and this hill does have a steep slope towards the Griddhkuta hill. The following are words and interpretation of the Papata Sutta where Buddha talks to the monk about the origin of fright in reference to the steepness of the hill.

Then the Blessed One together with a large number of monks went to Inspiration Peak. One of the monks saw the huge drop-off from Inspiration Peak and, on seeing it, said to the Blessed One, "Wow, what a huge drop-off! What a really huge drop-off is there any drop-off more huge & frightening than this?"

Yes, answered the Buddha, the precipice of ignorance of the nature of Dukkha

It is continuous hike to the top of Inspiration peak on a route taken by the Buddha, a 200mts rugged path from the Griddhkuta. Once you reach the top, the freshness of a gentle cold breeze is an inspiration in itself that sure would last a lifetime. Kings that later followed the Buddha times must have felt a similar inspiration that prompted Buddha to teach an important fact of bodhisattvas practice and they made a massive stupa to mark the place.

Next Post: Jivaka Amravana

Caves and Rock Shelters at Griddhkuta

Xuanzang has given a detailed description of caves and rock shelters where important disciples of the Buddha meditated.

The original footway that the Buddha used to take to reach the top

Place from where Devdatta hurled stone on the Buddha

Ananda’s place of meditation

Stupa to mark the site of Saddharma-Pundarika sutra

Cave where sariputta meditated

Next Post: Arahant

Buddha’s Teachings at Griddhkuta

The Four Great Kings (Cattāro Mahārājāno) who are believed to have guarded the four directions (Dhatarattha of the East, Virūlhaka of the South, Virūpakkha of the West, and Vessarana of the North (D.ii.207f; iii.194f)) and have protected Buddha since his conception and then later his followers, visited Buddha once while he was meditating at the Griddhkuta. Great King Vessavana told the Buddha that a group identified as Yakkhas (a sub group of people in their retinue) did not, for the most part, believe in the Buddha for the reason that they did not find it pleasant or agreeable to abstain from the things which he had declared to be evil - such as ending once life, theft, etc. And in order that the Buddha's disciples, haunting lonely and in remote parts of the forest where the Yakkhas dwelt, might find protection from them, Vessavana suggested that the Buddha,


"Bhante, may the Blessed One learn the Atanata protection so that the displeased Yakkhas may be pleased, so that the monks and nuns, laymen and laywomen, may be at ease, guarded, protected and unharmed."

The Buddha agreeing, Vessavana proceeded to recite it.

"Homage to Vipassī (the Buddha) possessed of the eye (of wisdom) and splendor. Homage to Sikhi (the Buddha) who is compassionate towards all beings.

Beginning with Vipassī It offers homage to the seven Buddhas, Vippassi, Sikhi, Vessabhu, Kakusandha, Konagamana, Kassapa and Sakyaputta, The remainder of the discourse contains a list of the gods and other superhuman beings, the Four Great Kings heading the list;

The sun rises from the east that is from the east of the Mahaneru (also termed Mahameru) where there is an ocean. Dhatarattha is the lord of that direction. To the south of Mahaneru is Virulha who is the lord of the South; On the west is Virupakkha and on the north is Vessavana. All the four great kings have ninety one sons each, and all those illustrious sons are of the same name 'Inda'. Even these sons worship the Buddha.


He would not give residence to any bad yakkha in his kingdom. Nor would his fellow yakkhas allow such a person to get married. If any non-human was a nuisance to any monk, nun, male lay devotee or female lay devotee, he or she should shout and say that he or she is being disturbed, to the great Yakkhas (whose names are mentioned).

The discourse ends with,

"These are the Yakkhas, mighty Yakkhas, the commanders, the chief commanders to whom (the molested one) should inform, cry aloud and shout saying: 'This Yakkha is seizing me, takes possession of me, is harassing me, assailing me, is harming me, and harming me intensely, and this Yakkha would not let me go!'


"This, Happy One, is the Atanata protection whereby monks and nuns, laymen and laywomen may live at ease, guarded, protected, and unharmed.



Ātānātiya Sutta that is now regarded as a Paritta (protection) was delivered by the Buddha at Griddhkuta. Paritta are the collection of suttas that as per the Pali sources were recommended by the Buddha to recite for warding off the evil fortune or unfavorable situations and for gaining health and happiness. Such recitation is also part of auspicious occasions (The Milinda-Pañha (p.150f)). Parittas is, to this day, more widely known by the laity of the Theravada countries and is generally used in times of danger or of sickness, both individual and national. Thus, Sena II., king of Ceylon, urged the community of monks to recite the Paritta and by sprinkling the water blessed with Paritta he made the people free from illness, and so removed the danger of plague from the country.

Since the Buddha's days, Paritta chanting has become a common practice to shield the followers from the influence of evil spirits, misfortune and sickness. More importantly, chanting the text reinforces the mind’s confidence in the Buddha and the Dhamma, and encourages us to remain virtuous and compassionate in our conduct.

Next Post: Second turning of the wheel of Dharma

Reference in Pali Commentaries

Griddhkuta is a serene peak amidst dense valley of greenery that cut out the hustle and bustle of a city life just few miles away making it ideal for concentration and deep meditation. This vulture peak with the nearby hills and the lush valleys is said to be the origin of River Sappini. (Vin.Texts i.254, n.20). Even as late as the 12th century Dharmaswamin found water flowing through some of its gullies. As per the Pali commentaries river Sappini could have been long enough travel beyond the hills further east. We see many rivulets around the Griddhkuta peak moving further east and pouring into the Ghoda Katora (now a Dam). The outlet of this dam is connected to Panchane River.


Early in the mornings on this hill is a time of fervent activities, pilgrims start the climb much before the initial rays of sun hit the top of the hill, sometimes there is an echo of the murmur of sutta chanted under the breath and at other time the rhythmic beating of drums dominates the vibrations but the sight is all too familiar just like it must have been centuries ago when the Buddha was here or very much like the description that Dharmaswamin left from the 12th century. “In order to frighten away the wild animals, some beat the drums, some cymbals and trumpet. Some came carrying bunches of fresh bamboos which emitted great sparks”.

At the top of the hill, organized chanting takes over the initial murmurs and if you close your eyes and listen to the waves of sound they transform the experience of even a non-believer. As the devotees end their prayers, the first rays of sun bask them in warmth sending the blessings of the universe to this scared place first. The thin veil between the past and present is breached atop this hill as you meditate deeper and feel the vibrations of the suttas that the Buddha delivered two millennia ago.

Next Post: Buddha’s Teachings at Griddhkuta

Xuanzang and Fahein about Griddhkuta

Griddhkuta holds a special place for all devotee of the Buddha no matter which part of world he belongs to. When Xuanzang traveled through treacherous terrains to get to India and while on his way, the king of Turfan asked him the reason why he is must continue his tough journey and taking so much pain to visit India. He replied


"….. To knelt at the Vulture Peak to show respect for Buddha and prostrate on the hill for receiving Buddha’s blessings."

Despite its popularity during the time of the Buddha a little of its glory survived the later centuries. Nine centuries later when Fahein visited the place following in the footsteps of the Buddha and to pay his homage to the Lord of the men, it was a desolate place; surrounded with unruly forest that was filled with wild animals. The path to the Griddhkuta wasn’t straight forward at all and in fact he had to hire two local monks from the newly populated city Rajgriha, who could escort him there. Fahein followed the traditional rituals bought some flowers, oils, lamps and incense to make offerings. Fahein was a devout Buddhist and once he reached the top of the hill, he felt the vibration of the Mahayanist Sutras that the Buddha himself delivered here and lost his much practiced emotional control and broke down. He controlled his feelings and spoke his heart, “Fa Hien, was born when I could not meet the Buddha and now I only see the footprints which he has left and the place where he lived and nothing more.’ With this, in front of the rock cavern, he chanted the Surangama Sutra, staying there overnight and then returned towards the new city”.

Xuanzang arrived Rajgriha two centuries later. On his way to India, when king of Turfan asked him purpose of his visit to India, Xuanzang had expressed his desire to bend his steps to the vulture peak to pay his adorations. And now after eight long years of arduous journey he was finally at the place where the Buddha delivered Lotus Sutra. He has left a detailed account of the place, our present information about the caves around the hill and its significance are based on his detailed description.


Next Post: Reference in Pali Commentaries

Etymology of Griddhkuta

The Griddhkuta (Gijjhakūta) was so called, either because its peak was like a vulture's beak, or because it was the resort of many vultures (SNA.ii.417; AA.i.412; MA.i.291, etc).

Xuanzang also says that the summit is the rock formation that resembles a vulture (Gridhh in Pali) standing with its wings folded.

According to Fahein, the legend that goes here is that Ananda was sitting in meditation, when the deva Mara Pisuna assumed the form of a large vulture in front of the cavern and tried frighten him. Buddha calmed Ananda by his mysterious powers; made a cleft in the rock, introduced his hand, and stroked Ananda's shoulder, so that his fear immediately died.

Vulture like peak

 
Next Post: Xuanzang and Fahein about Griddhkuta

Identifying locations based on evidences...

In this posts and a few following it would present the lists that are cataloged based on the Pali literature and references from the travelogue on the location (exact or the probable) of the sites. Based on these and other evidences few sites have been identified but majority of sites are still obscured and needs more exploration and excavations. The Places mentioned in the italics are an approximate estimation based on the available literary evidences and the exact location has not been confirmed. The places in bold blue color don’t have sufficient information to estimate its location but as per the literature they were some where in this region.

Griddhkuta area

Next Post: Identifying Veluvana